This capacity to see patterns and sort them into meaningful categories aids survival because it allows infants to distinguish between, for instance, a house cat and a lion, sunlight versus a fire, their mother versus someone else's mother.

Many cognitive psychologists claim that the human brain is hardwired at birth to categorize objects, people, and groups.

President Trump regularly challenged constitutional constraints placed upon the presidency and would regularly deny information that was contradictory to his goals, to the point of triggering a near constitutional crisis in the United States at the end of his term in office.

Expansionistic leaders, in contrast, are closed to receiving information that disconfirms their beliefs, challenge constraints imposed upon them, and focus on solving problems, not maintaining relationships.

Accommodative leaders, for example, respect constraints imposed on them, are open to information that may contradict their point of view, and seek to maintain good relationships.

Among political psychologists there has been a parallel effort to identify traits that characterize the behavior of political leaders.

Their findings suggested that it did, with variation in the distribution of personality scores in each culture studied differing only slightly.

Personality theory, popularized in psychological and leadership studies, sees conflictual and cooperative behavior as a function of one's innate personality.

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